Agentic Displacement in Second Language Writing: The Acquisitional Consequences of Delegating Writing to Autonomous AI Browsers
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54855/ijte.26642Keywords:
agentic displacement, EFL and L2 writing, self-regulated learning, agentic AI browsers, second language acquisitionAbstract
Autonomous AI browsers such as Perplexity Comet and Copilot Mode in Microsoft Edge can receive a writing assignment, draft a response, and submit it with little language produced by the learner. To explain what this means for second language (L2) writing, this conceptual paper introduces the term agentic displacement. Full delegation transfers planning, writing, and revision to the agent, removing opportunities for the learner to produce language and regulate the writing process. The paper argues that this loss may limit language development. Delegation is a continuum; the paper traces its extreme, full replacement, through production-based accounts of acquisition. No empirical data are reported; the paper offers a framework, five testable propositions, and three dimensions of teacher practice: recognizing displacement, auditing tasks for delegability, and using pedagogical judgment to recover the learning a task was meant to produce. The central risk is developmental, not only ethical or procedural.
References
Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2011). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. In M. A. Gernsbacher, R. W. Pew, L. M. Hough, & J. R. Pomerantz (Eds.), Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions to society (pp. 56–64). Worth Publishers.
Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 185–205). MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/4561.003.0011
Bozkurt, A., Crompton, H., & Fell Kurban, C. (2026). The devil is in the det[ai]ls: AI agents, ghost students, and the crisis of verified presence in an agentic AI world [Editorial]. Open Praxis, 18(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.55982/openpraxis.18.1.1145
Bretag, T., Harper, R., Burton, M., Ellis, C., Newton, P., Rozenberg, P., Saddiqui, S., & van Haeringen, K. (2019). Contract cheating: A survey of Australian university students. Studies in Higher Education, 44(11), 1837–1856. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1462788
California Virtual Campus. (2025, November). Safeguarding academic integrity in the age of agentic AI [White paper]. California Community Colleges. https://www.cvc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Safeguarding-Academic-Integrity-in-the-Age-of-Agentic-AI.pdf
Dai, L., Jiang, Y.-H., Chen, Y., Guo, Z., Liu, T.-Y., & Shao, X. (2025). Agent4EDU: Advancing AI for education with agentic workflows. In Proceedings of the 2024 3rd International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Education (ICAIE ’24) (pp. 180–185). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3722237.3722268
Dau, T. T. L., & Lam, T. T. (2026). Assessing L2 student writing in the AI era: A systematic review on challenges and best practices. International Journal of TESOL & Education, 6(1), 72–93. https://doi.org/10.54855/ijte.26615
Dwivedi, Y. K., Helal, M. Y. I., Elgendy, I. A., Alahmad, R., Walton, P., Suh, A., Singh, V., & Jeon, I. (2026). Agentic AI systems: What it is and isn’t. Global Business and Organizational Excellence, 45(3), 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/joe.70018
Fan, Y., Tang, L., Le, H., Shen, K., Tan, S., Zhao, Y., Shen, Y., Li, X., & Gašević, D. (2025). Beware of metacognitive laziness: Effects of generative artificial intelligence on learning motivation, processes, and performance. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(2), 489–530. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13544
Feng, H., Li, K., & Zhang, L. J. (2025). What does AI bring to second language writing? A systematic review (2014–2024). Language Learning & Technology, 29(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/73629
Garcia, P. H. S., de Souza, P. S. S., Luizelli, M. C., Mombach, J. G., Sachete, A. D. S., & Rossi, F. D. (2026). The new web attack surface: A taxonomy of semantic and agentic threats in AI browsers. IEEE Access, 14, 54109–54126. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2026.3680147
Gerlich, M. (2025). AI tools in society: Impacts on cognitive offloading and the future of critical thinking. Societies, 15(1), Article 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15010006
Hou, C., Zhu, G., & Sudarshan, V. (2025). The role of critical thinking on undergraduates’ reliance behaviours on generative AI in problem-solving. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(5), 1919–1941. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13613
Hyland, K. (2026). Writing in the AI era: Rethinking writing, research and teaching. Journal of Second Language Writing, 72, Article 101302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2026.101302
Jaakkola, E. (2020). Designing conceptual articles: Four approaches. AMS Review, 10(1–2), 18–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13162-020-00161-0
Järvelä, S., Nguyen, A., & Hadwin, A. (2023). Human and artificial intelligence collaboration for socially shared regulation in learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 54(5), 1057–1076. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13325
Jiang, F. K., & Hyland, K. (2025). Does ChatGPT write like a student? Engagement markers in argumentative essays. Written Communication. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/07410883251328311
Kofinas, A. K., Tsay, C. H.-H., & Pike, D. (2025). The impact of generative AI on academic integrity of authentic assessments within a higher education context. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(6), 2522–2549. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13585
Kostopoulos, G., Gkamas, V., Rigou, M., & Kotsiantis, S. (2025). Agentic AI in education: State of the art and future directions. IEEE Access, 13, 177467–177491. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3620473
Lee, S.-M. (2020). The impact of using machine translation on EFL students’ writing. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 33(3), 157–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1553186
Manchón, R. M. (Ed.). (2011). Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn in an additional language. John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.31
Microsoft. (n.d.). Copilot in Edge. Retrieved September 15, 2026, from https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/edge/copilot-mode
Molenaar, I. (2022). The concept of hybrid human-AI regulation: Exemplifying how to support young learners’ self-regulated learning. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, Article 100070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100070
Newton, P. M. (2018). How common is commercial contract cheating in higher education and is it increasing? A systematic review. Frontiers in Education, 3, Article 67. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00067
OECD. (2026). The agentic AI landscape and its conceptual foundations (OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers, No. 56). OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/396cf758-en
OpenAI. (n.d.-a). Evolving Atlas into ChatGPT for browser-based agentic work. Retrieved September 15, 2026, from https://help.openai.com/en/articles/20001371-evolving-atlas-into-chatgpt-for-browser-based-agentic-work
OpenAI. (n.d.-b). Using Ask ChatGPT sidebar and ChatGPT agent on Atlas. Retrieved September 12, 2026, from https://help.openai.com/en/articles/12628199-using-ask-chatgpt-sidebar-and-chatgpt-agent-on-atlas
Perplexity. (2026, September 7). Managing Comet Assistant permissions. https://www.perplexity.ai/help-center/en/articles/13531023-managing-comet-assistant-permissions
Pham, V. P. H., & Renandya, W. A. (2026). Navigating the AI turn: Framework for responsible AI integration in language education. International Journal of TESOL & Education, 6(2), 70–85. https://doi.org/10.54855/ijte.26626
Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002
Roitman, A. (2025, October 22). Cheating beyond ChatGPT: Agentic browsers present risks to universities [Blog post]. Pangram Labs. https://www.pangram.com/blog/agentic-browsers-present-risks-to-universities
Salah, M., Al-Busaidi, R., Al-Ghawi, A., & Shawky, W. (2026). The regulation paradox: Agentic AI, bounded autonomy, and self-regulated learning in higher education. Frontiers in Education, 11, Article 1902833. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2026.1902833
Sapkota, R., Roumeliotis, K. I., & Karkee, M. (2026). AI agents vs. agentic AI: A conceptual taxonomy, applications and challenges. Information Fusion, 126, Article 103599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inffus.2025.103599
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 129–158. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/11.2.129
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235–253). Newbury House.
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of H. G. Widdowson (pp. 125–144). Oxford University Press.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2002). Talking it through: Two French immersion learners’ response to reformulation. International Journal of Educational Research, 37(3–4), 285–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(03)00006-5
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4
Teng, L. S. (2024). Individual differences in self-regulated learning: Exploring the nexus of motivational beliefs, self-efficacy, and SRL strategies in EFL writing. Language Teaching Research, 28(2), 366–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211006881
Teng, L. S., & Zhang, L. J. (2016). A questionnaire-based validation of multidimensional models of self-regulated learning strategies. The Modern Language Journal, 100(3), 674–701. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12339
Teng, L. S., & Zhang, L. J. (2020). Empowering learners in the second/foreign language classroom: Can self-regulated learning strategies-based writing instruction make a difference? Journal of Second Language Writing, 48, Article 100701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2019.100701
Truscott, J. (1998). Noticing in second language acquisition: A critical review. Second Language Research, 14(2), 103–135. https://doi.org/10.1191/026765898674803209
Vu, L. U., Tran, N. M., Le, T. K. H., & Dao, H. L. (2022). Applying writing feedback orientation and self-regulated learning writing strategies to EFL students at Van Lang University during COVID-19. International Journal of TESOL & Education, 2(5), 64–88. https://doi.org/10.54855/ijte.22255
Warschauer, M., Tseng, W., Yim, S., Webster, T., Jacob, S., Du, Q., & Tate, T. (2023). The affordances and contradictions of AI-generated text for writers of English as a second or foreign language. Journal of Second Language Writing, 62, Article 101071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2023.101071
Wiederhold, B. K. (2026). From human web to agentic web: When machines become the internet’s primary users [Editorial]. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/21522715261432850
Zhang, Y., Li, M., Chieh, Y., & Han, S. (2022). On a path to becoming more self-regulated: Reflective journals’ impact on Chinese English as a foreign language students’ self-regulated writing strategy use. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 1042031. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1042031
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50031-7
Zimmerman, B. J., & Risemberg, R. (1997). Becoming a self-regulated writer: A social cognitive perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22(1), 73–101. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1997.0919
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Hala Fawzi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The copyright of all articles published in the International Journal of TESOL & Education (ijte) remains with the Authors, i.e. Authors retain full ownership of their article. Permitted third-party reuse of the open access articles is defined by the applicable Creative Commons (CC) end-user license which is accepted by the Authors upon submission of their paper. All articles in the ijte are published under the CC BY-NC 4.0 license, meaning that end users can freely share an article (i.e. copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format) and adapt it (i.e. remix, transform and build upon the material) on the condition that proper attribution is given (i.e. appropriate credit, a link to the applicable license and an indication if any changes were made; all in such a way that does not suggest that the licensor endorses the user or the use) and the material is only used for non-commercial purposes.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal the right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository, in a journal or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
